1、<p>　　Development Tendency and Instructions of Civil Engineering</p><p>　　With the progress in science and technology and engineering development of the practice of the disciplines of Civil Engineering

2、has developed into a broad connotation, many categories, and the structure of complex integrated system. For example, on civil engineering projects built with the use of facilities in terms of functionality, and some int

3、erest for residential purposes；Some production activities; some for land, sea and air transport; some for water utilities; some as a tool for informatio</p><p>　　Civil Sociality are accompanied by the develo

4、pment of human society developed. It reflects the construction of engineering facilities in every historical period of socio-economic, cultural, scientific, technical development of the face, thus civil society has becom

5、e one of the historical development of the witness. Ancient times, people will start to build simple houses, roads, bridges to meet the needs of easy living and production needs. Later, the people in order to adapt to th

6、e war, producti</p><p>　　After the industrial revolution, especially to the 20th century, on the one hand, civil society to put forwards a new demand; on the other hand, are all areas of society for the adva

7、ncement of Civil Engineering has created favorable conditions. Such as building materials (steel, cement) implementation of industrial production, machinery and energy technology, and design theory of progress are provid

8、ed for the Civil Engineering Materials and technical assurance. Thus this period has been rapid de</p><p>　　Practical Civil Engineering is a highly practical subject. In the early days, through the Engineeri

9、ng Practice of Civil Engineering, sum up successful experiences, especially the lessons learn from the failure of developed. From the beginning the 17th century to Galileo and Newton as the forerunner of modern mechanica

10、l and civil engineering practice, and has gradually formed material mechanics, structural mechanics, fluid mechanics, and rock mechanics, as the basic theory of civil engineering di</p><p>　　The reason why t

11、he development of civil engineering technology major with engineering practice rather than by virtue of scientific experiments and theoretical studies, there are two reasons: First, some of the objective situation is too

12、 complicated, it is difficult to faithfully carry out laboratory or field testing and theoretical analysis. For example, ground-based foundation, tunnels and underground engineering stress and deformation state and its c

13、hanges over time is still necessary to refer</p><p>　　Technically, economically as well as building up the unity of the arts people seek the most economical to build an engineering facility is scheduled to m

14、eet the needs of users, including the aesthetic requirements. While a project is economic and technical activities are closely related. Project's economic performance at the outset of the project site, on the overall

15、 planning, followed by performance at the design and construction technical. The total investment for project construction, the pro</p><p>　　Meet the functional requirements of civil engineering facilities a

16、s a space for art, first and foremost through the overall layout of the body itself, the various parts of the size of the ratio of lines, colors, light and shade and the shadow of the surrounding environment, including i

17、ts coordination with the natural harmony manifested; followed by the adoption of the Additional engineering facilities in the local decorative reflected. Engineering facilities and decorative shapes can also show p</p

18、><p>　　Civil Engineering at the long-term practice, people not only to the building housing the arts to give considerable attention, and achieved outstanding success; but also for other engineering facilities,

19、but also through the choice of different building materials, such as the use of stone, steel and reinforced concrete, with the natural environment built on very much in the art is beautiful, functional works also very go

20、od. Ancient China the Great Wall, much of the modern world on TV and oblique </p><p>　　Civil Engineering is the construction of various projects and facilities, collectively referred to science and technolog

21、y. It refers to the application of materials, equipment and carried out the investigation, design, construction, maintenance and other technical activities; also refers to the construction of the object, that is built on

22、 the ground or underground, on land or water, directly or indirectly, for human life , production, military, scientific research services for a variety of engin</p><p>　　Construction material and engineering

23、 facilities are basic land, building materials, construction equipment and construction machinery. With these material conditions, economic and convenient built to meet the people can use requirements and aesthetic requi

24、rements, but also to tolerate the various loads security engineering facilities, civil engineering disciplines are the starting point and destination. </p><p>　　Civil Engineering and three times in the histo

25、ry of the leap </p><p>　　Of Civil Engineering play a critical role in the development of, first of all, as are the material foundation for the civil engineering building materials, followed by the subsequent

26、 development of design theory and construction technology. Whenever there is a fine new building materials, the Civil Engineering will have leap-type development. </p><p>　　People at an early stage can only

27、depend on the soil, wood and other natural materials to create engaging activities, the subsequent emergence of such artificial brick and tile building materials, so that the first human to break the shackles of natural

28、building materials. Chinese in the eleventh century BC and the early Western Zhou Dynasty to create the tile. The first brick in the fifth century BC to the third century BC, when the tomb of the Warring States Period. B

29、rick and tile soil better </p><p>　　The appearance of brick and tile people begin extensive and substantial in construction of housing and urban flood control projects. This civil engineering technology has

30、been rapid development. Up to 18 ~ 19 century, at up to two thousand years, brick and tile has been a civil engineering building materials essential for the human civilization has made a great contribution, and even at p

31、resent is also widely used. </p><p>　　Steel substantial civil engineering applications are the second leap. 70s start the seventeenth century the use of pig iron, the beginning of the nineteenth century the

32、use of wrought iron construction of bridges and housing, steel this is a prelude to appear.</p><p>　　From the beginning the middle of the nineteenth century, metallurgical industry, smelting and rolling out

33、of high tensile and compressive strength, ductility, and the quality of uniform building steel, and then produce high-strength steel wire, steel cable. Therefore necessary to adapt to the development of the steel structu

34、re has been booming. In addition to the application of the original beam, arch structures, the new truss, frames, grid structure, gradually extended the suspension structure,</p><p>　　Building long-span stru

35、ctures from brick, stone structure, wood structure a few meters, the development of tens of meters to 100 meters of steel structures, a few hundred meters until 1000 meters above modern. So at Dajiang, both shelves start

36、ing Bridge, starting at the ground on the construction of skyscrapers and high-rise tower, and even laying on the ground under the railway, to create an unprecedented miracle. </p><p>　　In order to meet the

37、needs of the development of steel structure engineering, at the basis of Newton's mechanics, material mechanics, structural mechanics, structural design works on the theory came into being. Construction machinery, co

38、nstruction technology and construction organization design theory also the development of civil engineering rose from experience become a science, in engineering practice and the basic theories have taken on a new look,

39、which led to more rapid development of civi</p><p>　　The nineteenth century, 20's, made of Portland cement, the concrete had come out. Concrete aggregate can be local materials, ease of molding concrete

40、structures, but the tensile strength of concrete is very small, uses are restricted. After the mid-nineteenth century, iron and steel production surged, with the attendant emergence of this new type of reinforced concret

41、e composite building materials, which bear the pulling force of reinforced concrete to bear the pressure to play their respective </p><p>　　Start from the thirties, there has been pre-stressed concrete. Pres

42、tressed concrete structures crack resistance, stiffness and load-bearing capacity, much higher than the reinforced concrete structure, which uses an even wider area. Civil Engineering into the reinforced concrete and pre

43、stressed concrete dominant historical period. Give the appearance of concrete buildings have brought new economic, aesthetic form of engineering structures, so that a new civil engineering construction technology </p&

44、gt;<p><b>　　土木工程的發(fā)展</b></p><p>　　隨著科學技術和工程在土木工程的學科實踐中的發(fā)展進步，已經發(fā)展成為內容廣泛，種類繁多，綜合系統(tǒng)復雜的結構。例如，土木工程的項目在建造時使用的設備發(fā)揮一定的功能，以及一些體現(xiàn)住宅用途的，對一些生產活動，對一些地面，海上和空中的運輸條件;一些供水設施，一些作為信息傳輸?shù)墓ぞ?，一些作為能源傳輸?shù)氖侄蔚鹊?。這需要土木工

45、程材料綜合使用各種條件，以滿足不同需求。土木工程已經發(fā)展了很多分支，如住宅項目，鐵路工程，道路工程，機場工程，橋梁工程，隧道和地下工程，特種工程結構，供水，排水工程，對燃氣工程，港口工程，城市供熱水水利工程科學。一些分支如水利工程，因為他們自己的項目在不斷增加，專業(yè)科學技術的發(fā)展，一直處于分裂狀態(tài)，從作為一個獨立的系統(tǒng)，土木工程學科有針對性的，但他們仍然在很大程度上與土木工程共同點。</p><p>　　公民社會

46、性是人類與社會同時發(fā)展。它反映在每個歷史時期的社會工程設施建設，經濟，文化，科學，技術發(fā)展的表面，從而民主的社會已經成為了歷史發(fā)展的見證之一。自古以來，人們將開始建立簡單的房屋，道路，橋梁，以滿足簡單的生活和生產需要的需要。后來，人們?yōu)榱诉m應戰(zhàn)爭，產生和傳播宗教生活，需要建設運河，宮殿，廟宇和其他建筑物。許多著名的工程在這一歷史時期表現(xiàn)出的人類的創(chuàng)造性。例如，中國的長城，都江堰，運河，趙州橋，應縣木塔，埃及的金字塔，希臘的帕臺農神廟，羅

47、馬的供水工程，科洛西姆圓形競技場（羅馬大斗獸場），以及其他許多著名的教堂，宮殿等。</p><p>　　工業(yè)革命后，特別是對20世紀，一方面，民主社會提出的新要求，另一方面，是為土木工程對全社會的進步創(chuàng)造了有利條件的地區(qū)。例如建材（鋼鐵，水泥）的工業(yè)生產，機械能源技術，和設計理論的進展提供了土木工程材料和技術保證。因此，土木工程在這一時期得到了快速發(fā)展。世界各地出現(xiàn)的大量的工業(yè)廠房，高層建筑，核電廠，公路，鐵路，

48、大跨度橋梁，大直徑管道大規(guī)模的現(xiàn)代化，長隧道，大運河，大水壩，大機場，主要港口和海洋工程等?，F(xiàn)代民主社會繼續(xù)創(chuàng)造人類新的物理環(huán)境，人類社會與現(xiàn)代文明已成為一個重要組成部分。</p><p>　　實用土木工程是一個非常實用的科目。在初期，通過土木工程，總結成功經驗，特別是工程實踐的經驗借鑒了發(fā)達國家的失敗。從一開始，17世紀的伽利略和牛頓成為現(xiàn)代機械和民用工程實踐的先導，并已逐步將材料力學，結構力學，流體力學，巖石

49、力學作為土木工程學科的基本理論。逐漸發(fā)展成為一門科學土木工程的經驗。在土木工程的發(fā)展過程中，工程實踐和經驗，往往首先在理論上，在作品里，表明事故是無法預見的新因素，引發(fā)了研究和發(fā)展的新理論。到目前為止，許多作品的處理問題，在很大程度上仍然依賴于實踐經驗。 </p><p>　　土木工程技術的發(fā)展比起工程實踐更傾向于實驗和理論研究是有原因的，兩個原因是：第一，客觀形勢的太過復雜，很難絕對的履行實驗室或現(xiàn)場試驗

50、和理論分析。例如，地基基礎，隧道和地下工程應力和變形狀態(tài)，隨著時間的變化還需要參考的工程經驗，分析，判斷。第二個原因是新的工程實踐是為了揭示新問題。例如，一個高層建筑，超高層塔桅和大跨橋梁建設，風的阻力，地震工程突出問題，以及發(fā)展新的理論和技術。</p><p>　　為了在技術，經濟上與建筑物藝術氣息相互統(tǒng)一人們想要最經濟的建立一個研發(fā)基地，以滿足用戶的需求，包括審美要求。這是一個將經濟和技術活動密切的聯(lián)系在一起

51、的項目。這個項目的經濟表現(xiàn)在項目工地一開始就整體規(guī)劃，其次是在設計和施工的技術性能。該項目建設總投資，項目建成后經濟效益時期和維修費用的使用是衡量經濟的一個重要的方面。將密切接觸的這些技術問題加以考慮。</p><p>　　為了滿足民用工程設施，作為藝術空間的功能要求，首先是通過結構本身的總體布局，對各個地方的尺寸大小，顏色，光影及周圍環(huán)境的陰影，包括其與自然和諧協(xié)調的表現(xiàn)，然后由其他工程設施通過在建筑裝飾反映。

52、裝飾工程設施和形狀也可以顯示的地方風格，民族風格和時間風格。</p><p>　　土木工程在長期實踐中，不僅對房屋建筑藝術給予極大關注，不但工程項目上，而且也為其他工程設施取得了杰出成就，通過不同的建筑材料，如選擇使用石，鋼和鋼筋混凝土與非常多非常好的建造藝術自然環(huán)境優(yōu)美，功能性的工程。古代中國的長城，更是現(xiàn)代世界上經典，斜張橋，也是這方面的例子。</p><p>　　土木工程是各種科學和

53、技術設施建設項目的統(tǒng)稱。它指的是材料的應用，設備和進行勘察，設計，建造，維修和其他技術活動;還有就是建于地面或地下的有關土地或水的建筑物，直接或間接地對人類生活，生產，軍事，科研服務的工程設施給予幫助，例如房屋，公路，鐵路，管道，隧道，橋梁，河渠，堤壩，港口，電廠，機場，海上平臺，供水，排水和防護工程。</p><p>　　施工材料和工程設施是基本的方面，建筑材料，建筑設備和建筑機械。有了這些物質條件，可以滿足人

54、們對經濟和建設的使用要求和審美需求，而且還承受各種負荷安全工程交通便捷，土木工程學科的出發(fā)點和目的地。</p><p>　　土木工程中的三個歷史時代的飛躍</p><p>　　土木工程發(fā)揮在發(fā)展中起到關鍵的作用，首先，在設計理論和施工技術以后的發(fā)展之后將土木工程的建筑材料作為物質基礎。每當有一個較好的新建筑材料，土木工程將有跨越式發(fā)展。</p><p>　　在早期階

55、段，人們只能靠土壤，木材和其他天然材料進行建設活動，這種人工磚瓦建材隨后出現(xiàn)，使人類第一次打破天然建筑材料的束縛。在公元前11世紀中國和西周早期創(chuàng)造出了瓦。在第五世紀的第一個磚出現(xiàn)公元前3世紀，是當時的戰(zhàn)國墓。磚瓦在力學性能上優(yōu)于土壤，可以就地取材，易于制造。</p><p>　　使用磚瓦開始廣泛出現(xiàn)在住房和建設重大城市防洪工程。土木工程技術得到了快速發(fā)展。直到18?19世紀，在高達兩千年來，磚瓦一直是土木工程建

56、筑材料為人類文明生活所必需做出了重大貢獻，甚至現(xiàn)在也被廣泛使用。</p><p>　　大量使用鋼鐵是土木工程應用的第二次飛躍。從17世紀 70年代開始生鐵被使用，在19世紀初使用鍛鐵建造橋梁和房屋建筑，鋼鐵，這是一個前奏出現(xiàn)。</p><p>　　從一開始到19世紀中葉，冶金，冶煉及壓延高強度和壓縮強度的延展性來統(tǒng)一的評判建筑鋼材的質量，然后生產出高強度鋼絲，鋼絲繩。因此，出現(xiàn)了鋼結構的蓬

57、勃發(fā)展。除了原有梁，拱結構的應用，新的桁架，框架，電網(wǎng)結構逐步出現(xiàn)，擴大了懸挑結構，結構形式出現(xiàn)百家爭艷的情況。</p><p>　　建設大跨度結構由磚，石結構，木結構的數(shù)米，幾十米，發(fā)展到一百米，幾百米到一千米以上的現(xiàn)代建筑的鋼結構。因此，從大江，貨架上都大橋，到摩天大樓和高塔式建筑地面開始，即使是在地面下鋪設鐵路都開始使用大跨度結構，創(chuàng)造出一種前所未有的奇跡。</p><p>　　為了

58、滿足在牛頓力學，材料力學基礎上的鋼結構工程發(fā)展的需要，結構力學，結構的理論設計作品應運而生。建筑機械，建筑技術和施工組織設計理論也是在土木工程的發(fā)展中從經驗上升成為科學，在工程實踐和基本理論上具有了一種新的面貌，從而導致更多的土木工程的快速發(fā)展。</p><p>　　19世紀20年代，水泥混合而成的混凝土已出現(xiàn)?；炷凉橇峡梢允钱?shù)氐牟牧?，建造易于成型混凝土結構，但混凝土受拉強度非常小，使用受到限制。之后19世紀

59、中葉，鋼鐵生產大幅增加，隨著這種新型隨之出現(xiàn)了鋼筋混凝土復合建筑材料，鋼筋承受拉力混凝土承受的壓力，發(fā)揮各自的優(yōu)勢。自20世紀初，鋼筋混凝土已被廣泛應用于民用工程的領域中使用。</p><p>　　從30年代開始，出現(xiàn)了預應力混凝土。預應力混凝土具有一定的結構抗裂性，剛度和承載能力，大大高于鋼筋混凝土結構，是土木工程進入一個更高更廣闊的領域。土木工程到鋼筋混凝土和預應力混凝土主導的歷史時期，同時為混凝土建筑物的外